Circumcision

Not to be confused with female circumcision.

Circumcision
Circumcision surgery with hemostats and scissors
ICD-10-PCSZ41.2
ICD-9-CMV50.2
MeSHD002944
OPS-301 code5–640.2
MedlinePlus002998
eMedicine1015820

Circumcision is a surgical procedure that removes the foreskin from the human penis. In the most common form of the operation, the foreskin is extended with forceps, then a circumcision device may be placed, after which the foreskin is excised. Topical or locally injected anesthesia is generally used to reduce pain and physiologic stress.[1] Circumcision is generally electively performed, most commonly done as a form of preventive healthcare, as a religious obligation, or as a cultural practice.[2] It is also an option for cases of phimosis, chronic urinary tract infections (UTIs),[3][4] and other pathologies of the penis that do not resolve with other treatments. The procedure is contraindicated in cases of certain genital structure abnormalities or poor general health.[4][5]

The procedure is associated with reduced rates of sexually transmitted infections[6] and urinary tract infections.[1][7][8] This includes reducing the incidence of cancer-causing forms of human papillomavirus (HPV) and reducing HIV transmission among heterosexual men in high-risk populations by up to 60%;[9][10] its prophylactic efficacy against HIV transmission in the developed world or among men who have sex with men is debated.[11][12][13] Neonatal circumcision decreases the risk of penile cancer.[14] Complication rates increase significantly with age.[15] Bleeding, infection, and the removal of either too much or too little foreskin are the most common acute complications, while meatal stenosis is the most common long-term.[16] There are various cultural, social, legal, and ethical views on circumcision. Major medical organizations hold variant views on the strength of circumcision's prophylactic efficacy in developed countries. Some medical organizations take the position that it carries prophylactic health benefits which outweigh the risks, while other medical organizations generally hold the belief that in these situations its medical benefits are not sufficient to justify it.[17][18][19][20]

Circumcision is one of the world's most common and oldest medical procedures.[2] Prophylactic usage originated in England during the 1850s and has since spread globally, becoming predominately established as a way to prevent sexually transmitted infections.[21][22] Beyond use as a prophylactic or treatment option in healthcare, circumcision plays a major role in many of the world's cultures and religions, most prominently Judaism and Islam. Circumcision is among the most important commandments in Judaism and considered obligatory for men.[23][24] In some African and Eastern Christian denominations male circumcision is an established practice, and require that their male members undergo circumcision.[25][26] It is widespread in the United States, South Korea, Israel, Muslim-majority countries and most of Africa.[2] It is relatively rare for non-religious reasons in parts of Southern Africa, Latin America, Europe, and most of Asia, as well as nowadays in Australia.[2] The origin of circumcision is not known with certainty, but the oldest documentation comes from ancient Egypt.[2][27][28][29]

  1. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference AAP_2012 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  2. ^ a b c d e Cite error: The named reference WHO_2007_GTDPSA was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  3. ^ Cite error: The named reference lissauer_2012 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  4. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference hay_2012 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  5. ^ Cite error: The named reference rudolph_2011 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  6. ^ Cite error: The named reference yuan was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  7. ^ Cite error: The named reference rehmeyer_2011 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  8. ^ Cite error: The named reference larke_HPV_2011 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  9. ^ Cite error: The named reference Chikutsa-2015 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  10. ^ Sharma AL, Hokello J, Tyagi M (25 June 2021). "Circumcision as an Intervening Strategy against HIV Acquisition in the Male Genital Tract". Pathogens. 10 (7): 806. doi:10.3390/pathogens10070806. ISSN 2076-0817. PMC 8308621. PMID 34201976.
  11. ^ Cite error: The named reference WHO-2010b was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  12. ^ Cite error: The named reference siegfried_Cochrane_2009 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
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  15. ^ Cite error: The named reference weiss_2010_complications was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
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  17. ^ Cite error: The named reference Gable-2007 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  18. ^ Cite error: The named reference WHO-2010a was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  19. ^ Cite error: The named reference Bolnick_2012_ch1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  20. ^ Cite error: The named reference caga-anan_2011 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  21. ^ Cite error: The named reference Al-Salem-2016 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  22. ^ Cite error: The named reference Afshar_2018 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  23. ^ Cite error: The named reference Mark-2003a was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  24. ^ Cite error: The named reference Hamilton-1990 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  25. ^ Cite error: The named reference N. Stearns 2008 179 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  26. ^ Pitts-Taylor V (2008). Cultural Encyclopedia of the Body [2 volumes]. ABC-CLIO. p. 394. ISBN 9781567206913. For most part, Christianity does not require circumcision of its followers. Yet, some Orthodox and African Christian groups do require circumcision. These circumcisions take place at any point between birth and puberty.
  27. ^ Cite error: The named reference Doy2005 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  28. ^ Cite error: The named reference alanis_2004 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  29. ^ Morris BJ, Wamai RG, Henebeng EB, Tobian AA, Klausner JD, Banerjee J, et al. (1 March 2016). "Estimation of country-specific and global prevalence of male circumcision". Population Health Metrics. 14 (1) 4: 1–13. doi:10.1186/s12963-016-0073-5. ISSN 1478-7954.
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